NEWSLETTER #58 - SOCIETY OF AFRICAN EARTH SCIENTISTS

  Volume 15, Issue 1, January - March 2026

CONTENT

Chair's Foreword

The Affordability of Solar Power in Africa

Earth Science Events

References and selected reading

Chair's Foreword*

In this issue we attempt to articulate the difficult problem of making solar energy affordable in Africa and hence realising some of the enormous potential that it promises, as well as its obstacles. We consult reports on the SE4All (Sustainable Energy for All) programme co-chaired by the UN secretary general and president of the World Bank, the Outlook for Africa in the development of solar PV and other reports which look at Nigeria as a case study applicable to other African countries.

Figure 1.  Small Solar: One visible half of a 1.5kVA Solar Panel Installation in Owerri, Nigeria

Affordable Solar Electricity in Africa

   Off-grid solar energy installations are growing across Africa. This is partly due to the high cost of regional electricity, and the ongoing difficulty communities in Africa have in accessing the  national grid.[1]

   Although Africa has 60% of the world's best solar resources, only 3% of the continent's electricity is generated from solar [2]. However, the significant growth of solar in recent years is well illustrated by the fact that in 2024 alone 2.4 GW (Giga Watts) of new solar capacity was installed on the continent. South Africa and Egypt led the way in having the largest capacities in installation. The continental surge in solar is expected to have reached over 40% in 2025[3]. Despite significant growth of solar installations in Nigeria, the solar energy sector still represents only 0.2% of Nigeria's energy generation. [4]

   A report detailing Nigeria's attempt to accelerate its electrification in rural areas notes that Nigeria is the  single nation with the highest number of people without access to electricity[5]. In seeming response to the need to improve Nigeria's record, the government has put in place a "Distributed Access to Renewable Energy Scale-up" (DARES) Project, designed to close the electricity access gap. The project hopes to supply electricity to 17.5 million Nigerians by means of 1,350 mini-grids [6].

   According to a report on global off-grid solar market trends, published by the World Bank, there are 685 million people around the world who have no access to electricity, and most of these are in Africa [7]. As noted above, Nigeria houses the greatest nation population who have no electricity access.

   A report on a Sustainable Energy Project (SE4All)  co-chaired by the World Bank President and the UN secretary general, puts forward a multi-tier framework for understanding access to energy in Africa and elsewhere. We essentially employ a chart (Table 1) mapping solar energy capacity against cost[8], and in the process map the entire societal spectrum of affordability for different household incomes as well as businesses and trade activities. By this approach we are able to see the levels of electricity access that are required for various industries and economic activities[9]. The World Bank had created this report to guide investors in the energy sector; but the information provided is also highly useful for solar power service providers who would like to tailor their provision for all income levels in the market, thereby twinning the provision of a comprehensive community service with potentially greater business sustainability; since a larger market is reached in catering for all income brackets of  solar power consumers, rather than merely focusing on a minority group made up of higher income consumers. This might seem counter intuitive to the solar business sector; but we must return to this in our conclusion.

   In conclusion, the framework report notes that the vast majority of Nigerian citizens, and on a continental scale, the vast majority of Africans, have an income level only commensurate with the lowest level of solar power provision. That is, 0 to 0.042 kVA. This equates to the provision of lights only, via a DC  power facility, such as solar lanterns, rather than an inverter, which  at minimum will provide 0.15kVA.  Many Africans (with Nigerians a case in point) will fall into the tier level 0 - 1, which has the capacity for only 1-3 LED lights and phone charging and has an installation cost of N5,000 to N50,000. Tier 1 to 2 provides for more lights and phone charging (possibly with a small fan,  but not TV ) at an even greater cost of  N80,000 to N200,000. 

 

Table 1.     World Bank Multi-tier Framework (MTF) and Real World Appliance Usage

Inverter Size kVA	MTF Tier	Daily Energy Capability (kWh)	Typical appliance load	User Profile & Context	Estimated Cost Range (N) N1 = approx. $1400
0kVA (DC only) solar lanterns	0-1	0.01 – 0.1 kWh	1-3 LED lights, phone charger	Poorest rural household/refugee camps	N5,000 – N50,000
0.15-0.3kVA	1-2	0.2-0.5kWh	1-3 LED lights, phone charger. No TV. Small fan.	Households at below minimum wage. First step beyond fuel-based lights.	N80,000 – N200,000
0.5kVA	2	0.6 – 1.2kWh	All tier 1 plus TV, medium fan, small blender. No fridge.	Lower income urban household, rural teacher, well-off petty traders.	N600,000 – N850,000
1kVA	3	1.5 – 3kWh	Tier 2 plus small fridge, 2 fans, TV, computer, laptop, printer. Ltd simultaneous use.	Lower middle-class income, small office, boutique, clinic requirements for lighting and equipment.	N900,000 – N1.4 million.
1.5 – 2kVA	3-4	3 – 6kWh	Tier 3 plus medium fridge, water pump, electric iron, small microwave. Ltd simultaneous use.	Middle class family. 3-4 bedrooms. Standard barber shop, large kiosk with fridge.	N1.4 million – N2.2 million.
3kVA	4	6-10kWh	All tier 1 plus one split-unit AC(1HP) OR, washing machine. Better simultaneous use.	Affluent home. Or medium size shop. Multiple freezers. Computer business centre. Pharmacy.	N2.5 million  – N3.8 million
5.0 kVA	4-5	10-20kWh	Can run 2 x split AC (1.5HP total), full kitchen (blender, microwave, small cooker), full office. Load management essential.	Large home/ small hotel/ restaurant/ workshop (welding, carpentry).	N4.5 million – N7million
7.5kVA	5	15-30kWh	Runs multiple Acs, electric water heater, full refrigerator + freezer, washing machine, managed electric cooker use.	Large villa/ small school/ hospital ward/ small factory/ industrial level.	N7 million – N12 million
10kVA	5+	20-40kWh	Full home electrification without load management.	Commercial enterprise/ assembly plant/ large hotel/apartment block/estate home	N8 million – N15 million +

   The minimum wage in Nigeria amounts to about N30,000 per month. This is theoretical really, since only 20% of Nigerians are in formal employment where this rate applies. About 80% of the population exists outside the formal employment sector where their income falls way below this level. Given that the minimum wage in Nigeria amounts to about N360,000 per year, it is apparent that the cost of even a level 1 to level 2 scheme is not affordable for many Nigerians, who would need about  6-7 months of their salary upfront in order to save up enough to purchase the most basic solar system with a solar power inverter. Finance might only be possible through loan schemes, where the user pays periodically until the cost of the system has been paid off and the customer then owns the system. 

  Other than the development of loan schemes which are difficult to manage successfully in a country like Nigeria with such a large portion of the population living under the minimum wage level; the other option is for solar providers to wait for solar costs to fall still further; or appreciate that counter intuitively (as noted above), greater profitability actually may not lie in targeting only a wealthier tier of consumers (as most of the market seems conditioned to do); but in making provision for all income levels - since the majority of customers can only afford the lowest level basic systems that provide domestic lighting, phone charging and small fans. Providers should accept that most of their income could lie in making more low income provision such as DC lights, phone charging and small energy efficient fans and other appliances with low energy requirements, rather than chasing providing only for wealthier homes which are fewer and further between.

   Finally, a very real beacon of hope for small income households in Africa, lies in the ongoing technological development of appliances specifically for use with solar energy technology. This means we are seeing the development of lower energy appliances that can operate with less power, such as LED lighting, and very low energy electric fans. This means that in the future appliances might become so energy efficient as to become operable at more affordable low wattage. This trend is certainly being observed with low energy lights and fans which are now operable at very low outputs as in table 2, below, that are commensurate with tier 0 - tier 1 and 2 solar capacities[10]. 

Table 2. Low Energy Modern Fans

USB mini-fans: 2-10 Watts

Small desk fans: 5-30 Watts

Energy-efficient BLDC (Brushless DC) ceiling fans: 10-30 Watts

Earth Science Events

8 April 2026

International Conference on Conservation Agriculture and Soil Erosion Control

VENUE: Cape Town, South Africa.

21-23 April 2026

Future Health Africa 2026: Re-imagining Healthcare through technology in Africa

VENUE: Casablanca, Morocco.

6-11 July 2026

5th International Conference on African Rivers: Research Development and Innovation

VENUE: Mohamed V. University, Rabat, Morocco.

21 July

International Conference on Hydraulics and Civil Engineering Solutions

VENUE: Cape Town, South Africa.

21-23 September 2026

African Water Security Conference - Towards and Secure and Resilient Africa

VENUE: Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

8-11 December

7th International Africa Congress on Hydro environment and engineering Research

- Water Resilience & Innovation

VENUE: Kigali, Rwanda.

References and Selected Reading

[1] Africa Market Outlook for Solar PV 2025-28, Global Solar Council, 2025.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Ibid.

[4] 2025 Renewable Energy (Solar) Industry Report (Nigeria), Agusto, 2025.  https://agustoresearch.com

[5] Nigeria Accelerates Rural Electrification, Africa Energy Portal (AEP), 08 January, 2026.

[6] Ibid.

[7] Off-Grid Solar Market Trends Report 2024, ESMAP (Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme), World Bank, 2024. https://www.esmap.org/sites/default/files/esmap-files/2024-off-grid-solar-market-trends-report.pdf.

[8] Beyond Connections: Energy Access Redefined, World Bank Group 2026, https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/energy/publication/energy-access

Citation: Bhatia, M; Angelou, N. 2015. Beyond Connections: Energy Access Redefined. ESMAP Technical Report; 008/15 (c) World Bank.http://hdl.handle.net/10986/24368

License: CC BY 3.0 IGO ; https://doi.org/10.1596/24368

[9] Ibid.

[10] How Much Electricity Does a Fan Use? Complete 2025 Cost Guide, Solar Tech, July 2025.

*Board of the Society of African Earth Scientists: Dr Enas Ahmed (Egypt), Osmin Callis (Secretary - Guyana/Nigeria), Dr Stanley Echebima (Nigeria), Mathada Humphrey (South Africa), Damola Nadi (Nigeria), Dr Chukwunyere Kamalu (Chair - Nigeria).

 

 

NEWSLETTER #57 - SOCIETY OF AFRICAN EARTH SCIENTISTS

 

Volume 14, Issue 4, October - December 2025

CONTENT

Chair's Foreword*

African Earth Sciences Must Aim for Africa's Climate Resilience Alongside the Sovereignty of its Resources

Earth Science Events

References and selected reading

Chair's Foreword*

We again address climate. Inevitably, the prominent current concern addressed by earth and atmopheric sciences is climate warming. However, we  must not in the the rush to progress with the energy transition that the response to climate warming demands, neglect the economic necessity of diligent resource management, for the betterment of African lives. This is precisely because many of the minerals needed for the energy transition are found in Africa.

   This issue is dedicated to the memory of a dear friend and collaborator, Explo Nani Kofi, who directed the Kilombo Centre in Ghana and invited SAES to run a solar energy workshop at its annual Ghana Street Parliament event in Peki in 2016. Our sincere condolences to his family. Members and readers are free to review the reports on that event in our newsletter archives. There were well over 30 young and enthusiastic participants in that workshop, which our brother Explo had the mind to have translated live in Ewe language for the benefit of the wider population. It reminded us that language is perhaps the most powerful tool in our attempts to decolonise our knowledge systems.

African Earth Sciences Must Aim for Africa's Climate Resilience Alongside the Sovereignty of its Resources, in Particular, it's Energy Transition Minerals (ETMs)

 A foray into the latest earth science research alerts us to more evidence of accelerating climate change. 

Increased Water Vapour

Studies from 2024 [1] show record levels of atmospheric vapour, which is a key driver of a temperature-vapour feedback loop that amplifies warming. This increased water vapour correlates directly with the potential for more extreme and intense rainfall events, especially from tropical storms [2].

Extreme Precipitation Trends

Research confirms a significant increase in extreme rainfall events over recent decades, with regional variations. [3]

   The frequency and intensity of weather disasters, including floods and rapidly intensifying cyclones, is rising.

Record Global Temperatures

2024 was the warmest year on record, exceeding 1.5 degrees Celsius above industrial levels for the first time on an annual basis[4]. Although this seems alarming, a limit of 1.5 degrees annually above preindustrial levels would have to be breached over a period of two decades before 1.5 degrees C is accepted as breached. One year observed over 1.5 degrees is not enough.

   This unprecedented warmth leads, as we expect, to more atmospheric water vapour and hence more extreme rainfall. The warmth contributes to unprecedented sea level rise and affects atmospheric and ocean circulation patterns governing the weather.

Groundwater Atlas of Africa

   In summary, global earth science research and discussions at the present are dominated by the present dangers and existential threat of climate change.  The research indicating increased trends in extreme rainfall are borne out this year. 2025 has been a notable year for extreme flooding and rainfall events across Africa [5].

   And even in the African Diaspora, 2025 can point to Hurricane Melissa, which devastated parts of Jamaica, Haiti and Cuba, with dozens of lives lost.

   Although Africa only contributes 3-4% of global emissions, we have seen that it suffers disproportionately from the effects of  climate change [6]. Success in managing the effects of climate change in Africa is grounded in local and regional action involving:-

*Hydrological and geological mapping: identifying and managing water resources to combat scarcity

*Agricultural science: developing climate resilient farming practices and soil management[7]

*Early Warning Systems: Utilizing meteorological and Geophysical data to predict weather events.

Mapping Africa's Resources - AJ Labs

African Natural Resources Sovereignty

As well as an African imperative to fight climate change on the front foot and on the front line;  there is the risk and threat of economic doom that looms on the horizon; whereby the rising demand for renewable energies is accompanied by a leap in demand for energy transition minerals.

   From an African economic development viewpoint account must be taken of the Continent's deep economic vulnerability to the exploitation of its mineral resources; particularly in being the world's treasure chest of energy transition minerals - that is, those minerals of critical value in enabling the global energy transition from fossil fuels to renewables[8]. Such minerals are: cobalt, lithium, copper, platinum and rare earth metals. 

   The value of these minerals is exported when they are exported in their raw state. When the raw materials are shipped abroad for processing, this transfers jobs that could have employed Africans, along with the accompanying industrial development, to the industrialised countries, to Europe and USA. In addition to this, mining agreements are often more favourable to multinational corporations than to the source nation. 

   Furthermore, the resource extraction takes an environmental toll. Local communities must continue to bear the cost of environmental degradation resulting from badly regulated extraction industries whilst the economic benefits of the extraction are enjoyed elsewhere. 

   The dynamic described above represents a colonial cycle of unending exploitation which destroys Africa's long term economic potential. A key question for Africa's economic future is: How can Africa avoid being exploited for its ever more critical mineral wealth, when in addition to supplying for global energy transition, it is also needed to improve the quality of lives of generations of  African people.

   A powerful tool in regard to the trading of African minerals is collective bargaining. African countries can negotiate more powerfully as a block, rather than individual countries.

   The idea of an "OPEC  (organisation of petroleum exporting countries)" for minerals  seems to urgently require being made into a concrete reality for Africa's economic survival. The case of the Congo makes this Continental block [an African "OMEC (organisation of mineral exporting countries)"] more complex, yet more of an urgent priority. 

  Africa  has since independence been the victim of the so called "resource curse". In numerous articles [9] there is talk of how Africa's minerals can revamp global economies; but little attention to ensuring Africa's minerals play a role in revamping African economies. Africa now has to forge a path of  climate resilience; but it must do this at the same time as guarding and prudently managing its wealth of critical minerals, that are in peak demand for the eventual transition from fossil fuels to renewables.

Earth Science Events

15 November 2025

International Conference on Applied Icthyology, Oceanography & Aquatic Environment

VENUE: Cairo, Egypt

12 January 2026

International Conference on Geology and Geophysics

VENUE: Nairobi, Kenya

18 January 2026

International Conference on Marine Biology & Oceanography

VENUE: Lilongwe, Malawi

27 January 2026

International Conference on Oceanography and Climate Change

VENUE: Cairo, Egypt

21-23 April 2026

Future Health Africa 2026: Re-imagining Healthcare through technology in Africa

VENUE: Casablanca, Morocco

References and Selected Reading

[1] State of the Climate Report, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 2024    & Fowler, J., How Atmospheric Water Vapour Amplifies Earth's Greenhouse Effect, Feb. 2022. Https://science.nasa.gov/earth/climate-change/]steamy-relationships-how-atmospheric-vapour-amplifies-the-greenhouse-eeffect.

[2] Yoo-Jun Kim; Joon-Bum Jee and Byunghwan Lim, Investigating the Influence of Water Vapour on Heavy Rainfall Events in the South Korean Peninsula, Remote Sensing, Volume 15, Issue 2, 2023. 

[3] Water - at the Centre of the Climate Crisis, United Nations, https://un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/water & Martinez-Villalobos and Neelin, J.D., Regionally high risk increase for precipitation extreme events under global warming, Scientific Reports, Volume 13, article 5579, 2023.

[4] Global Climate Highlights 2024, Copernicus. Https: // www.copernicus.eu.

[5] See SAES NEWSLETTER #56. 

[6] UNEP, Responding to Climate Change, Feb. 2024.

[7] SAES Newsletter #54

[8] Adewumi, Paul; How Africa Can Harness Critical Mineral Wealth to Revamp Economies, United Nations Trade and Development (UNCTAD), https://unctad.org/news/how-africa-can-harness-critical-mineral-wealth-revamp-economies

[9] Ibid.

*Board of the Society of African Earth Scientists: Dr Enas Ahmed (Egypt), Osmin Callis (Secretary - Guyana/Nigeria), Dr Stanley Echebima (Nigeria), Mathada Humphrey (South Africa), Damola Nadi (Nigeria), Dr Chukwunyere Kamalu (Chair - Nigeria).

 

 

NEWSLETTER #56 - SOCIETY OF AFRICAN EARTH SCIENTISTS

Volume 14, Issue 3, July - September 2025

CONTENT

Chair's Foreword*

African Climate Report, September 2025 

Earth Science Events

References and selected reading

Chair's Foreword*

As should be the periodic exercise - the latest report from the Society of significant weather events in the 2025 calendar year to date is presented. The prevalence of flooding and landslides caused by heavy rainfall is notable.

Mokwa floods, Mokwa, Niger State, Nigeria. May 2025.

Africa Climate Report, September 2025

At the start of September 2025 leaders of the African continent  assembled  at the Second Africa Climate Summit, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [1].  The central message coming out of the African climate summit conveyed by the host, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed of Ethiopia, is that a change of narrative must be effected to cease to represent Africa as a victim of climate change. Instead Africa strives to be regarded as a dynamic contributor, offering climate solutions that will benefit Africa and the world at large [2]. Also a WMO delegation held high level panel discussions highlighting the state of progress in monitoring and data sharing. More financial support was called for to support African Meteorology institutions. Prime Minister Ahmed called for 1000 African Climate solutions by 2030 as part of his proposed Climate Compact. 

   The challenges of climate; although a subject of sometimes subjective debate in the circles of the Climate Summit, are a visceral reality among African communities across the continent. In over a dozen African countries (out of a total 54), the year 2025 was yet another featuring extreme weather events mainly due to heavy rainfall that then led to floods and landslides causing  many losses of lives, injuries and thousands displaced from their homes [3].

   Flooding in 2025 affected at least 10 countries across West and Central Africa. Close to a million people (984,000 ) have been affected. In order of worst affected countries were DRC (658,000 affected), Nigeria (127,000), and Cape Verde (95,000) followed by others. Over 20,000 were displaced across these countries, including also Ghana.

   Of the worst cases to be case-studied among these floods, are the so called Mokwa Floods, which devastated the town of Mokwa in Niger State in Northern Nigeria. Several factors were at play to cause the catastrophic Mokwa Floods. On the 28th May 2025, the town indeed experienced heavy rainfall. The persistent heavy rain caused the town to be submerged  by a flood. The volume of rain and its intensity caused a local dam to be overwhelmed and collapse. The damage caused by the torrent was further exacerbated by poor drainage provision and a deforested landscape.[4], [5].

   In some cases, the heavy rainfall across the continent led to seasonal proliferation of landslide events. One such catastrophic event occurred in South Sudan in August, leading to the loss of over 1000 lives. On 20th August 2025 heavy rainfall triggered a landslide in south west Guinea.This was one of a series of landslide events across Guinea that had claimed at least 50 lives and left many injured [6].

South Sudan Landslides

  

  These extreme climate events remind us that whilst we continue our subjective discussions on climate at regional and continental levels, we cannot escape the stark reality,  suggested by events on the ground that climate change is no longer a spectre of the future for which we can plan years in advance. Climate change is here with us here and now. We must quickly grapple with monitoring as well as managing its current and ongoing effects on our continent.  

Earth Science Events

16 October 2025

VISION: International Conference on Water Resources Hydraulics & Hydrology 

VENUE: Mopti, Mali

25 October 2025

International Conference on Earth Science & Recycling Waste Management

VENUE: Maseru, Lesotho

25 October 2025

International Conference on Water Resources Hydrualics & Hydrology

VENUE: George, SA

15 November 2025

International Conference on Applied Icthyology,  Oceanography & Aquatic Environment

VENUE: Cairo, Egypt

12 January 2026

International Conference on Water Resources, Hydraulics & Hydrology

VENUE: Elmohndseen, Egypt

18 January 2026

International Conference on Maritime Biology & Oceanography

VENUE: Lilongwe, Malawi

27 January 2026

International Conference on Oceanography & Climate Change

VENUE: Cairo, Egypt

12 January 2026

International Conference on Geology and Geophysics

VENUE: Nairobi, Kenya

21-23 April 2026

Future Health Africa 2026:  Re-imagining Healthcare through technology in Africa

VENUE: Casablanca, Morocco

References and Selected Reading

[1] The Second Africa Climate Summit (ACS2) - Accelerating Global Climate Solutions: Financing for Africa's Resilient and Green Development, Pre-Summit, Sep 5-7, 2025. Summit Sep 8-10, 2025. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

[2] Ibid.

[3] West & Central Africa 2025 Monitoring of the Flooding Situations - As of 21 August, OCHA, 28 August 2025.

[4] Wikipedia, Mokwa Flood.

[5] Nigerian Flood Disaster. 111 confirmed Dead. Mathrubhumi. May 30, 2025.

[6] Reuters, 3 September 2025, Plea for Helped After Landslide Wipes Out Sudan Village.

*Board of the Society of African Earth Scientists: Dr Enas Ahmed (Egypt), Osmin Callis (Secretary - Guyana/Nigeria),  Dr Stanley Echebima (Nigeria), Mathada Humphrey (South Africa), Damola Nadi (Nigeria), Dr Chukwunyere Kamalu (Chair - Nigeria).

 

 

NEWSLETTER #55 - SOCIETY OF AFRICAN EARTH SCIENTISTS

 

Volume 14, Issue 2, April - June 2025

CONTENT

Chair's Foreword*

The Feasibility of  Organic Fertilizer Cooperatives in Africa

Earth Science Events

References and selected reading

Chair's Foreword*

In the current issue we address the urgent topic of organic soil fertilization in Africa and its feasibility of  widespread adoption via a cooperatives farming model.

   It has long been acknowledged that most soils in Africa are substantially degraded and in need of restoration to enhance sustainable food production [1]. One of the factors that has been contributing to this is the overuse of chemical fertilizers [2], [3]. Other factors include the mode of industrial agriculture that has been encouraged and implemented in the colonial and neo-colonial era[4], which has served to deplete the soil of nutrients. Industrial farming often included a practice of monoculture with one crop being planted on a plot; as opposed to traditional farming with mixed cropping. When the crop is harvested in monocropping, there are no plants left to provide protection for the soil from rain and sun by their canopies. The result is the erosion of soil material and leaching out of nutrients making the soil infertile. Traditional farming allowed fallow periods for the soil to recover after several seasons of cultivation; and cultivation of crops would be moved to another land plot that had been left uncultivated. This rotation of plots and shifting of cultivation was not practiced in industrial modes of agricultural production, leading to the exhaustion of Africas soils. 

   To redress this situation, the current issue explores the feasibility of introducing organic fertilizers  in the form of a model of cooperative production of organic fertilizer. The report on such a model will look at elements of the organic compost fertilizer cooperatives value chain from resource inputs to distribution and marketing [5]. This is an ongoing discussion.

The Feasibility of Organic Fertilizer Cooperatives in Africa

Organic fertilizer cooperatives in Africa have the potential to be highly effective in improving food yields and hence African food security [6]. Organic farming offers opportunities for improving soil fertility, waste management and improving farming income and livelihoods [7]. However, successful implementation requires addressing challenges related to resource availability and very strict quality control, and market access. 

   The factors which make organic fertilizer cooperatives feasible include firstly, an abundance of organic waste to be found on the farm (such as plant residues and animal manure) that can be converted to organic fertilizers.

    Secondly, there appears to be a rising demand for organic fertilizers. The rising cost of chemical fertilizers in Africa in places like Uganda is one of the factors  increasing interest in organic fertilizer. Other factors include the experience of farmers noticing a positive impact on soil health leading to increased crop yields[3].

   Thirdly, cooperative models can empower farmers by providing access to inputs, processing facilities and markets for their organic fertlizer product. Some governments in Africa are actively supporting organic agriculture. By establishing Cooperatives we can encourage governments that are not yet encouraging organic agriculture to embrace the economic and environmental benefits of practising organic farming.

   We must address the inevitable challenges that will be faced along the way.  These will include the simple restraint that smallholder farmers might find it difficult to access sufficient amounts of organic material and necessary technology for processing. Of course, it is also vital to ensure quality control and consistency in the quality of the fertilizer produced. This would necessitate manufacture by a fixed and documented process so that the quality and effectiveness of the fertilizer product is consistent and easily reproduced. Having this consistency of product will ensure the product is adopted by local farmers.

   An important challenge to be addressed in order to sustain the cooperatives is ensuring  there remains a market. A market outlet is essential for sustainability of the fertilizer production. Farmers who join the cooperative are encouraged to stay if it provides a platform to sell their produce.

   The final and not unexpected challenge may arise in the form of  competition from chemical fertilizers. However, their recent upsurge in cost has made organic fertilizers more attractive. Furthermore, once adopted farmers are exposed to the benefits of organic fertilizer, including improved soil health leading to greater food production, lower costs of production requiring less and more appropriate technology and also potentially increased incomes. In the long run these factors make organic fertilizers a more sustainable way to treat our soils [8].

   In conclusion then, as a potential solution to food security problems, organic fertilizer products require the scoping of the entire value chain for organic fertilizer manufacture [9]. From the sourcing of the raw plant materials to compost into fertilizer through to the distribution and selling of the final product, each stage of the value chain must be scoped.

   Overall, the idea of organic fertilizer cooperatives in Africa is very feasible. However, success depends on addressing the most arduous challenges, including the management of input resources and the development of a sustainable organic fertilizer market. The rewards of estsblishing such cooperatives  are plentiful and include environmental improvement as the soil quality and hence fertility is improved. This is seen as a gain in "natural capital". In creating networks of distribution and a platform for farmers to sell their fertilizers the cooperative model creates infrastructure. Lastly the farmers experience an increase in income making them feel more confident of avoiding becoming poor[10].

   

Earth Science Events

18–21 August 2025

VISION: We are excited to announce the TC/ESG25 Conference, a collaboration between the Transformations Community, the Earth System Governance Project (ESG), and Wits University. 

VENUE: Johann & Krugee National Park, South Africa

1 September 2025

International Conference on Environmental Science & Engineering

VENUE: Kisumu, Kenya

5 September 2025

International Conference on EEnvironmental Meteorology & Climatology

VENUE: Bamako, Mali

References and Selected Reading

[1] Martey, E., Welfare effect of organic fertiliser use in Ghana, Heliyon, Volume 4, Issue 19, October 2018, e00845.

[2] Culas, R., Anwar, M.R. and Maraseni, T.N., A framework for evaluating benefits of organic fertiliser use in agriculture, Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, Volume 19, March 2025, 101576.

[3] Raimi, A., Roopnarain, A., Adeleke, R. , Biofertiliser production in Africa: Current status, factors impeding adoption and strategies for success, Scientific African, Volume 11, March 2021, e00694..

[4]  Soil and Water Conservation in  Sub-saharan Africa, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Rome 1992.

[5] Feasibility Study of the Credit Guarantee for Fertiliser Financing in Africa, African Development Bank, Department of Agriculture and Agro-Industry, African Fertiliser Financing Mechanism

[6] Martey, E., Ibid.

[7] Ibid.

[8] Ibid.

[9] AfDB, Department of Agriculture and Agro-Industry, African Fertiliser Financing Mechanism, Ibid.

[10] Martey, E., Ibid.

*Board of the Society of African Earth Scientists: Dr Enas Ahmed (Egypt), Osmin Callis (Secretary - Guyana/Nigeria), Mathada Humphrey (South Africa), Damola Nadi (Nigeria), Dr Chukwunyere Kamalu (Chair - Nigeria).

N.B. As of this quarter our esteemed sister geoscientist, Ndivhuwo Cecilia Mukosi has stepped down from the board of trustees as SAES seeks to become incorporated as a company limited by guarantee in Owerri, Nigeria to avoid conflict of interest with her day job. We are eternally grateful to Ndivhuwo for helping to found our organisation and her pivotal role in nurturing and supporting the development of SAES over the past 12 years. This is more a farewell than a goodbye as she remains a much loved and revered alumni and a permanent part of our scientific network and family. We wish her abundance of success in future endeavours.

NEWSLETTER #54 - SOCIETY OF AFRICAN EARTH SCIENTISTS

Volume 14, Issue 1, January - March 2025

 

CONTENT

Chair's Foreword

Indigenous Soil Management Practices

Earth Science Events

References and selected reading

 

Chair's Foreword*

In the current issue we revisit the topic of indigenous soil management practices.

 Africans have been managing and conserving their soil and water and soil fertility for millenia. However, the recent  history of the continent including its colonisation and neo-colonialism, has seen an adverse effect on African soil and soil fertility. Consequently, much of Africa’s landmass has suffered long term depletion of nutrients,  moisture  and soil material.

   Western modes of agricultural land use in Africa such as intensive monocrop production repeatedly employed on the same land without fallow periods (as indigenous modes of agriculture employ[1] ) has mainly contributed to this degeneration of soils along with the environmental irresponsibility of some extractive industries that actually pollute the land - which is another matter.  The degradation of the land we concern ourselves with here takes the form of  the loss of soil due to erosion, loss of vegetation as well as soil nutrients leached out by rainfall and carried away by overland flow.

   In the current day  we know that a key solution to fixing our degraded lands lies in  employing African indigenous technology.

This has been well established in the three decades since the output of the valuable 1992 report by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) [2] by ongoing  follow up work in the Sahel countries [3] where large areas of land were rehabilitated and hundred of thousands of tons of additional amounts of food were produced as a result of applying these simply enhanced indigenous techniques. 

Indigenous Soil Management Practices in Africa

The purpose of this newsletter's focus on indigenous soil management practices is for the Society to 

a) Encourage African use of indigenous technology, enhanced and improved as needed

b) Disseminate the  Knowledge of indigenous technology and its applications within Africa and the African Diaspora.

We focus on the most well known and documented practices, still being employed on the continent today.

Acacia albida tree

1) Planting Acacia trees

Planting the acacia albida tree fixes nitrogen in the soil via symbiotic bacteria. The tree sheds leaves during the rainy season which lead to more organic matter in the soil. This is known to improve soil moisture retention.

   The trees also reduce wind erosion due to the resistance provided by their canopies. These canopies also provide a cover to prevent soil loss by direct rainfall.

   The picture also shows a termite mound, which we recall from last newsletter, is also incorporated as part of a system of indigenous soil management practices[2a].

Applying mulch

2) Mulching

This is the traditional technique of protecting the soil through covering it with organic material to protect it from direct rainfall and sunshine. It is effective in combating weeds. It is widely known to improve crop resilience in West Africa [4].

Stone Bunds

3) Stone Bunds

Stone bunds are a line of stones arranged along the contours of the land  in order to slow the flow of the water and trap sediment and  organic material. In the long term, this enriches the soil. The bunds have the effect of reducing the amount of runoff and mitigating against the nutrient-rich top soil loss. The increased infiltration brought about will lead to more rapid groundwater recharge.

   In the northern Ethiopian highlands large scale stone bunds building programmes were implemented to curb soil erosion. The study of the programmes concluded that crop yields increased by 7% compared to yields when there were no stone bunds[5].

4) Trash Lines

These are obstructions/barriers arranged to slow down overland flow or runoff draining from the catchment and hence reduce erosion.  They consist of crop and plant residues and debris. They serve to eventually  increase infiltration of water and hence assist in the groundwater recharge. They accumulate organic matter.

Terracing - Rwanda

5) Terracing

This practice refers to the stepped platforms on slopes constructed across terrain in order to manage erosion and facilitate farming on steep slopes. The stepped constructions serve to greatly reduce the energy of the runoff and slow its velocity. The flattened terrain allows for greater water infiltration and hence more water retention and speedier recharge of groundwater. It also assists in retaining soil nutrients that would have been washed away without stepped slopes.

   A study on the effect of terracing during the Ethiopian drought of 2015 provided evidence that terraces have potential to help farmers deal with current climate risks[6]. A meta analysis by Wei et al., 2016 [7] found that terracing was on average 11.5 times more efficient at controlling erosion than non- terraced plots.

By reducing plot steepness terraces affect soil composition, hydrology and hence plant growth. Since, as already mentioned, terraces improve groundwater recharge rates, as well as reducing runoff and enhancing the soil nutrients content. 

Check dam - Ethiopia

6)  Check Dams

These are small barriers built across  gullies (channels in the landscape created by erosive overland flow) using stones, logs, or earth to slow the flow of runoff. The dam serves to trap sediment and hence conserve soil as well as moisture. The effect is to recharge the groundwater and increase the level of the water table. The sediment also contains organic material which improves the organic material content of the soil, further improving its capacity to retain moisture.

   Check dams are used all over the globe for control of torrential flows. Through experience and numerous case studies, people have realised their advantages in land development, environmental improvement, agricultural production, erosion gully stability and the mitigation of intensive flooding[8].

Zai planting pits

7) Zai Planting Pits

In Burkina Faso, the traditional form of agricultural planting pit was enhanced. The Zai planting pits are larger. Zai planting pits are 30-40cm in diameter and 10-20 cm deep. The bottom of the planting pit is lined with manure, which retains moisture in the planting pit as well as providing fertiliser for the crops planted in the pit.

   As emphasized by further studies in Nigeria [9], it is accepted that Zai along with other indigenous techniques are an effective way of improving degraded land and reducing vegetation loss and increasing  bio-diversity. Progress was seen in Niger and Burkina Faso where people rehabilitated many hectares, and increased the food yield many fold. In the report by Reij et al [10] various methods applied in Burkina Faso including Zai rehabilitated 200,000 - 300,000 ha and resulted in additional yield of 80,000 tons of food. In Niger, an even greater land area was rehabilitated: 5 million ha and there was an additional yield of 500,000 tons of food.

Earth Science Events

20 May 2025

International Conference on Environmental and Life Sciences

VENUE: Kenema, Sierra Leone

21-22 May 2025

Environment Social and Governance (ESG) Climate Africa Summit

VENUE: Nairobi, Kenya

2 June 2025

International Conference on Environmental Science & Engineering

VENUE: Gulu, Uganda

18–21 August 2025

VISION: We are excited to announce the TC/ESG25 Conference, a collaboration between the Transformations Community, the Earth System Governance Project (ESG), and Wits University. 

VENUE: Johann & Krugee National Park, South Africa

1  September 2025

International Conference on Environmental Science & Engineering

VENUE: Kisumu, Kenya

5 September 2025

International Conference on EEnvironmental Meteorology & Climatology

VENUE: Bamako, Mali

References

[1] Bado, V., Savadogo, P., et al., Technical Report. Restoration of Degraded Lands in West Africa Sahel: Review of Experiences in Burkina Faso and Niger, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).

[2] Soil and Water Conservation in  Sub-saharan Africa, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Rome 1992.

[2a] Newsletter #53 - Society of African Earth Scientists. 

[3] Reij, C., Smale, M., and G. Gray, Re-Greening the Sahel: Farmer-led Innovation in Burkina Faso and Niger, in Miliions fed: Proven success in agricultural developments, International Food Policy Research Institute,  Washington 2009, p.53-58.

[4] Lamers, J., Bruentrap, M., and Buerkert, A., The Profitability of Traditional and Innovative Mulching Techniques Using Millet Crop Residues in the West African Sahel, Agricultural Ecosystems and Environment, Vol. 67, Issue 1, January 1998, pages 23-35.

[5] Vancampout, K., Nyssen, J., Gebremichael, D., et al., Stone bunds for soil conservation in the northern Ethiopian highlands: Impacts on Soil Fertility and Crop Yield, Soil and Tillage Research, Vol. 90, Issues 1-2, November 2006, pages 1-15.

[6] Kosmowski, F., Soil Water Management Practices (terraces) helped to mitigate the 2015 drought in Ethiopia, Agricultural Water and Management, Vol. 204, 31 May 2018, pages 11-16. https://doi.org/1016/j.agwat.2018.02.25

[7] WeiWei et al., Global synthesis of the classifications, distributions, benefits and issues of terracing, Science Direct, Elsevier, 2016. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825216301313

[8] Abbasi, N.A., et al,  The use of check dams in watershed management projects: Examples from around the world, Sci. Total Environ. 2019.

[9] Danjuma, M.N., and Mohammed, S., Zai Pits System: A Catalyst for Restoration in the Dry Lands, Journal of Agriculture & Veterinary Sci., Vol. 8, Issue 2, Ver. 1 (2015).

[10] Reij, C., Smale, M., et al. Ibid.

 

*Board of the Society of African Earth Scientists: Dr Enas Ahmed (Egypt), Osmin Callis (Secretary - Guyana/Nigeria), Mathada Humphrey (South Africa), Damola Nadi (Nigeria), Dr Chukwunyere Kamalu (Chair - Nigeria).