NEWSLETTER #31 - SOCIETY OF AFRICAN EARTH SCIENTISTS

Volume 8, Issue 2

April-June 2019

CONTENTS

Chair's Foreword

The Problem of Africa's Infrastructure Project Failures

Earth Science Events

References and selected reading

Chair’s Foreword*

Welcome to the 31^st newsletter of Society of African Earth Scientists where we visit the topic of the continent's frequent infrastructure project failures and the causes for them.

The Problem of Africa's Infrastructure Project Failures

   A brief investigation into the literature of this subject reveals that making an inventory for Africa is perhaps over ambitious, as it would promise to be vast in extent.

   The work of Nweze [1] on the failure of public infrastructure projects in Nigeria alone reveals , via the work of Oseminan [2], Nigeria to be "the world's junkyard of failed projects" and that there are 400 major failed projects in Nigeria alone as at 2016 costing hundreds of billions of Naira [3]. This number will have escalated. Reasons identified for failure by the study include: corruption, absence of project management expertise, inexperienced staff, absence of relevant skills. Other reasons identified included, incorrect project cost estimates, poor planning.

   Taking into account all projects large and small, Okereke [4] records that 11,886 Federal Government projects were abandoned in Nigeria between 1971 and 2011. This does not include state government projects which would surely make the list of failures vast. Even if other African countries have only a fraction of Nigeria's failures we see that an inventory for Africa is an unrealistic task. Instead one can focus on learning lessons from significant projects which is what Okereke attempts in his paper.

   There are positive examples on the continent of projects that succeed on budget and on time, in South Africa and Ghana. Take for instance the South African infrastructure put in place for the highly successful 2010 FIFA World Cup. 

Dadin Kowa Dam, Gombe State, Nigeria. Completed in 1984 as a hydro-electric dam project, the dam has not delivered a single watt of electric power to the residents of Gombe State to this day

   Ika and St Macary [5] cite project management as the key factor in the failure of African infrastructure projects. Sometimes, these seem to suggest the sheer complexity of project conditions requires a level of project management that is missing.

   Isaac Damoah, in his PhD thesis on this subject uses Ghana as a case study on why projects fail in developing nations [6], and his study is notable for identifying changes in government and lack of continuity as causes for project failure. These have very recently been highlighted in the press in the case of Nigeria being told by a British Court that it must pay $9 billion to a British company for failing to provide the gas for a planned gas processing plant construction in Calabar, South Eastern Nigeria [7]. This represents a catastrophic waste of benefit that might have been enjoyed by Nigerians in the form of electricity that might have been generated from the gas. In this instance there was a lack of continuity between three successive Nigerian administrations that led to the British company claim. Other factors Damoah cites in failure are political interference, poor planning, procurement processes, release of funds, and so on.

   Solutions to combat project failure offered in the literature include obvious advice such as: encouraging governments to prioritise monitoring of their projects [8], or tackle corruption [9]. There is advice to take note of unrealistic pricing at the contract bid stage, and to demand cashflow information from contractors to ensure they can operate for the duration of the project [10].

   Apart from recommending that various professional bodies and government institutions should meet their obligations by better enforcing codes of ethics or practice on their members or clients, Nweze also makes the prudent case for the review of procurement legislation with a view to plugging loopholes for abuse [11].

Earth Science Events

October 6-9, 2019

16th SAGA Biennial Conference and Exhibition "Current Informing the Future"

VISION:The conference, a staple of the geophysical community in Africa, provides a forum for engagement, idea generation and sharing.

VENUE: Durban, South Africa

October 6-10, 2019

17th African Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering "Innovation and Sustainability in Geotechnics for Developing Arica"

VISION: Innovative and sustainable infrastructure is crucial for Africa's economic integration. As such, the vision of improved geotechnics is a positive notion directed at the development of the continent.

VENUE: Cape Town, South Africa 

October 30-31, 2019

World Congress on Irrigation, Water Resources & Drainage Engineering

VISION: 

VENUE: Sydney, Australia

November 18-19, 2019

Crop Science & Agriculture

VISION: 

VENUE: Bali, Indonesia

November 26-27, 2019

Global Summit on Earth Science & Climate Change

VISION: 

VENUE: Lisbon, Portugal

References

1. Nweze, N., Failure of Public Infrastructure Projects in Nigeria: Causes, Effects and Solutions,Texila International Journal of Management,vol.2, issue 2, Dec. 2006. 
2. Osemenan, I., (1987). Project Abandonment. Newswatch Magazine, (1), 15.
3. Kotangora, O.O.,(1993). Project Abandonment in Nigeria. Nigeria Tribune.
4. Okereke, O.C., Causes of failure and abandonment of project deliverables in Africa, PM World Journal, Vol. VI, issue 1 - Jan 2017.
5.  Ika, L and J. Saint-Macaray, Why Do Projects Fail in Africa?, Journal of African Business, September,2014,(15(3),151-155,2014). Link: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/280213472.
6.  Damoah, I.S., An investigation into the causes and effects of project failure in developing countries: Ghana as a case study, PhD Thesis, Liverpool John Moore University, October 2005.
7. Reuters, Judge to allow firm to try to  seize $9 billion Nigerian assets in gas dispute, Aug 2019. https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-nigeria-arbitration/uk-judge-to-allow-firm-to-try-to-seize-9-billion-in-nigerian-assets-in-gas-dispute-idUKKCN1V6154. 
8. Damoah, op. cit.
9. Nweze, op. cit.
10.  Murwira, D., and M. Bekker, Building an infrastructure project performancein the north-west province department of public works and roads, Acta Structilia 2017: 24(2).
11. Nweze, op. cit.

*Board of the Society of African Earth Scientists: Dr Enas Ahmed (Egypt), Osmin Callis (Secretary - Guyana /Nigeria), Mathada Humphrey (South Africa), Dr Chukwunyere Kamalu (Chair - Nigeria), Ndivhuwo Cecilia Mukosi (South Africa), Damola Nadi ( Nigeria).

NEWSLETTER #30 - SOCIETY OF AFRICAN EARTH SCIENTISTS

Volume 8, Issue 1

January-March 2019


CONTENTS

Chair's Foreword
International School Awards 2018
Enhancing PV Cell Output  Using Mirrors/Reflectors
Earth Science Events
References and selected reading

Chair’s Foreword*

Welcome to the 30^th issue of Society of African Earth Scientists Newsletter.

Firstly, we draw attention to the success of a number of African Schools from across our continent in the International School Awards, in particular, we look at the work of Corona School in Agbara, Nigeria who won an award in the Business Plan category and executed a successful Water Sanitation and Hygiene project. On behalf of SAES we would like to congratulate Corona School on their successes.

   We also take an enthusiastic look at some research into photovoltaics from around the world that suggests solar panel power outputs can be significantly increased simply using reflectors. This promises to be an effective way to reduce the costs of solar panels in terms of output per £1 or $1 spent.

   Last but not least: In 2013 SAES set a challenge to use Google Earth to measure the land area and coastline of Africa as part of Day of Earth Sciences in Africa (DESA), 20-21^st March each year. Six years later it will be interesting to revisit this activity and note if there have been any significant changes in result. The challenge to revisit this activity has therefore been set. The activity guide is to be found by searching "geodata collection activity" on the blog and we look forward to reviewing the results in a future newsletter issue.


Corona School, Agbara State, Nigeria - International School Awards 2018

Chukwunyere Kamalu with Adewale Akinwunmi (Headteacher, Corona School)

Corona School is to be commended and is featured here; not only  for its success in the 2018 International School Awards in the Business Plan category, but furthermore, because the school has made a significant achievement in successfully executing a Water Sanitation and Hygiene development project conceived and planned through an exceptional community effort involving the pupils and staff of Corona School with the help of the local community’s skilled artisans and professionals. This is particularly notable as their community in Agbara, Nigeria, suffered two past cholera outbreaks in a ten year period which led to the tragic loss of life of five members of the community with many residents taken ill.

   The School was able to spearhead a community drive to take action to improve community public health and hygiene and protect against a future repeat of the cholera outbreaks of the past, by collaborating with local project stakeholders made up predominantly of the members of the local Transformer Club and Gavel Club. These clubs helped to organise fundraising for the project for materials and labour to execute the agreed plan.

   The stakeholders together cooperated to construct: 1) A four-room public toilet and washroom facility and 2) A borehole with water storage tank and  water taps that now make water for drinking and sanitation available to the local population.

   Most importantly, the project stakeholders have been able to devise a system that will make this a sustainable provision and will enable this facility to be available for community long term benefit. The stakeholders have secured a guarantee from the local Community Development Association that it will ensure the continued maintenance of the facility; with a Committee appointed by the Community Council ensuring the continued maintenance and effective running of the facility into the foreseeable future.

Enhancing PV Cell Output Using Mirrors/Reflectors

A fair number of studies are now to be found on the internet, which demonstrate that the solar power output  of solar panels can be significantly increased by placing mirrors or reflectors in suitable close proximity.

   Arshad et al in 2014  in Pakistan [1] were able to show that the use of mirrors improved output by 32%. However, it was also the case that the use of mirrors/reflectors increased irradiance and also the temperature of the solar panels. Unfortunately, raising temperature also decreases the efficiency of the panels. This was ameliorated by applying a cooling  mechanism  and led to a 52% improvement in  panel power output.

   Naseer K Kasim et al in Iraq [2] report a gain in output power of over 48% when reflectors are applied to their solar panels. Since their trough shaped solar reflectors caused a rise in incident radiation levels which increased and thus increased the PV module short circuit current. The reflectors do cause a rise in temperature which leads to a fall in voltage. However, the percentage drop in  voltage (V) is far less than the .percentage drop in current  (I), so there remained a net increase in power P = V x I.

   Andrews, Pollard and Pearce [3] showed that a 45% increase in solar panel output was made by employing reflectors, in this case made of a sophisticated form of Aluminium.

Trough shaped mirrors attached to solar panels. From Kasim et al , 2018

   There is a surfeit of further studies supporting the examples discussed above  [4, 5, 6]. The results of these studies raise the possibility of designing suitable furniture (to accompany solar panels) that is covered in reflective material that is cheap and easy to access such as aluminium foil. Such furniture with suitable fixings and proximity would enhance irradiance and increase the PV module current and thereby the power output of the panels for relatively little cost. 

Earth Science Events

June 6-7, 2019

Zimbabwe Mineral Resources Conference

VISION: Pro- and preceded by geological field trips. Will be subdivided into two morning and afternoon sessions.

VENUE: Harare, Zimbabwe

July 11-13, 2019

World Congress on Geology and Earth Science

VISION: Providing innovative research methodologies for Earth Sciences.

VENUE: London, UK

August 4-9, 2019

70th Annual Meeting of International Society of Electrochemistry

VISION: Linking resources to sustainable development

VENUE: Durban, South Africa

October 6-9, 2019

16th SAGA Biennial Conference and Exhibition "Current Informing the Future"

VISION:The conference, a staple of the geophysical community in Africa, provides a forum for engagement, idea generation and sharing.

VENUE: Durban, South Africa

October 6-10, 2019

17th African Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering "Innovation and Sustainability in Geotechnics for Developing Arica"

VISION: Innovative and sustainable infrastructure is crucial for Africa's economic integration. As such, the vision of improved geotechnics is a positive notion directed at the development of the continent.

VENUE: Cape Town, South Africa 

 .

References, Selected Reading, etc

References on photovoltaic research

1.     Arshad, R., Tariq. S., Niaz, M., M. Jamil, “Improvement in Solar Panel Efficieny Using Solar Concentration by Simple Mirrors and Cooling”, 2014 International Conference on Robotics and Emerging Allied Technologies in Engineering (iCREATE), Islamabad, Pakistan.

2.     Kasim, N.K., Atwan, A.F., Eliewi, F.M., “Improve the performance of  solar modules by reflectors”, The Sixth Scientific Conference “Renewable Energy and its Applications”, IOP Conference Series: Journal of Physics: Conf. Series 1032 (2018) 012031.

3.     Andrews, R., Pollard, A., Pearce, M.J., “Photovoltaic System Performance Enhamcement With Non-Tracking Planar Concentrators: Experimental Results and Bi-Directional Reflectance Function (BDRF) Based Modelling. Link: https://www.academia.edu/16836963/Photovoltaics_Systems_Performance_Enhancement_With_Non_Tracking_Planar_Concentrators__Experiment

4.     Srisailam, Ch., Srihari, T., Chinna Babu, T., “Improvement of Solar Energy By Mirror Reflection Technique”, International Journal of Engineering Research and General Science Volume 3,  Issue 3, May-June, 2015.

5.     Rizk, J., and Nagrial, M.H. (2009), “Impact of reflectors on solar energy systems”, International Journal of Electrical, Computer, Energetic, Electronic and Communication Engineering Vol 2, No.5, 2008.
6.  Ahmed, S., Mia, M.M.A, Acherjee, S. and M.A.A. Ansary, "More Efficient Use of Photovoltaic Solar Panel Using Multiple Fix Directed Mirrors or Aluminium Foils Instead of Solar Trackers in Rural Perspective of Bangladesh", International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research Vol. 3, Issue 4, April 2014.

*Board of the Society of African Earth Scientists: Dr Enas Ahmed (Egypt), Osmin Callis (Secretary - Guyana /Nigeria), Mathada Humphrey (South Africa), Dr Chukwunyere Kamalu (Chair - Nigeria), Ndivhuwo Cecilia Mukosi (South Africa), Damola Nadi ( Nigeria).

NEWSLETTER #29 - SOCIETY OF AFRICAN EARTH SCIENTISTS

Volume 7, Issue 3

July-December 2018


CONTENT

Chair's Foreword
The Sustainable Village Model: A Viable Way to Accelerate Development in Rural Africa?
Earth Science Events
References and selected reading


Chair's Foreword*

Welcome of Mr Damola Nadi to SAES Board of Trustees

In this issue we have the great pleasure of announcing the co-option on to the Society of African Earth Scientists Board of Trustees, of Mr Damola Nadi.  Damola is a young agroecologist, who will be an invaluable  addition to our board of trustees, bringing up our number  of personnel to a total of  six. The Society continues to encourage African scientists to join the board, with a special encouragement to prospective members from East Africa, which is not currently regionally represented on the board of trustees.

"Another Africa Is Possible", SAES and AAIP Networking Event and Agroecology Film Show, Thursday 15th November 2018

   In November, SAES hosted a networking event in London entitled  "Another Africa Is Possible" in collaboration with Explo Nani Kofi, the editor of Another Africa Is Possible (AAIP)  Newsletter. It included a presentation on AAIP's grassroots work addressing social justice  and historical issues in Ghana and also Cameroon, which was followed by an agroecology film showing and discussion, featuring the film "Ethiopia Rising: Red Terror to Green revolution".

Aba Hawe from Ethiopia Rising - Red Terror to Green Revolution

   Just shy of 20 people attended the networking event of a social justice organisation (AAIP) with a science organisation (SAES) - an untested and  novel combination which on the one hand introduces scientists to social justice issues, whilst also engaging social justice practitioners in the issues of environmental sustainability, energy, food sovereignty, etc.
   The discussion was notable for suggestions/proposals raised by the audience, including the idea that African and diaspora communities should acquire land on which to put the agroecology techniques learned from the film into practice. The land acquired need only be modest - a garden space, allotment, etc. This was seen as a good means of not only applying and transferring knowledge; but also of engaging youth in productive trans-formative activity, working with nature and with the land.
   The film featured astonishing statistics of achievement by the rural community of Abraha Atsbeha, in the Tigray region of Ethiopia, including moving more soil than the volume of the Great Pyramids,  planting nearly a million trees in 4 years, doubling crop yields, increasing the level of the water table by 15m to such a level as to create a natural spring of freshwater flowing from the ground 24/7, reforesting a previously desertified and barren landscape, terracing many hectares and building numerous check dams, etc. which all in the end helped to increase local water retention and help regenerate the environment.

 
The Sustainable Village Model: A Viable Way to Accelerate African Rural Development?

Imagine a sustainable village model in an African setting: Dwellings which are constructed from locally sourced materials - perhaps the local clay or mud to create mud bricks. There would be sufficient land area to practice traditional African farming, with an emphasis on agroecology. The cleanest freshwater would be collected by rainwater harvesting systems. Advantage would be taken to provide off-grid renewable energy, such as solar and/or wind power, as appropriate. Sanitation could be provided by composting toilets in a sustainable way which transforms harmful human waste into soil, which can be  safely handled and spread over agricultural land as fertilizer.
  The idea is that if one could develop these model villages successfully, it would then merely be a matter of replication to  upscale and reproduce such villages in every country, thereby alleviating poverty in the poorest and most vulnerable rural communities across Africa within a short time frame; as the majority of  the poorest African people live in a rural setting.
   Several initiatives have emerged to trial the idea of the sustainable village; but a number of these are pioneered from outside of the continent, leading to the risks that come with external agency, including  the loss of independence of development.
   Whatever the circumstances in which sustainable villages (SV) are trialed, it is arguably always a positive development, because the benefits for encouraging a development trend or momentum outweigh the dangers. The results of these developments seem positive; although this is tempered  with concern over the problem of upscaling the SV model. Overall, the prevalence of SV model trials all over Africa is a good thing, which can, if managed well by Africa states for the benefit of their citizens, succeed in accelerating African infrastructural Development. The danger when this is managed by external agencies, of diverting the purposefulness of infrastructure away from meeting African needs and towards improving the climate for corporate investors, is palpable, as in the case of the Columbia University Millenium Villages Project that incorporates the usual spectres of  reliance on "improved seeds" and western industrial fertilisers. In such cases, Africa traditional agriculture and agroecology are relegated as "backward", when in fact these approaches guarantee Africa's food sovereignty and environmental sustainability.
   As the first instance of one of these initiatives, the Ecosa Institute [1] created a plan for a sustainable village in Duayee, Liberia that included elements of sustainability mentioned above, among others:-

• Agricultural, food and energy sustainability
• Rainwater harvesting for freshwater
• Paper making and other craft industries

Sustainable Village Model. Duayee, Liberia

   In another instance, Ecovillage articulates the establishment of a Pan-African village development programme aimed at eradicating poverty [2].  The programme aims to accelerate progress by targeting the poorest and most vulnerable  populations which are rural communities. They cite work in Senegal, where the government is committed to establishing 14,000 ecovillages, having established a trial of 45 villages through the Global Ecovillage Network (GEN). They also report on projects in Egypt (Sekem Ecovillage) and Cameroon, where the local NGO, Better World Cameroon, create a sustainable village model with managed soil erosion, water retention, soil enrichment, composting and craft industry.

   Columbia University Earth Institute report in a review of their African Millenium Villages experiment [3], the building of 78 millenium villages in 12 sites across 10 African countries, each representing a major agroecological zone.  In early results the research villages in Kenya, Ethiopia and Malawi have reduced malaria incidence, met calorific requirements, generated crop surpluses, enabled school feeding programmes and provided cash earnings for farm families.

   Lastly, in Rwanda, the partnership of UNEP-UNDP and REMA(Rwanda Environmental Management Authority) resulted in Rwanda's first "green" village [4]. This has been scaled up to provide over 44 sustainable village models to halt environmental degradation, provide renewable energy, livelihoods and improved infrastructure for local people. A cost-benefit analysis revealed that the village at a cost of $636,000 to construct and $22,000 per year to run, the village generated an interest rate of return of 5.8%, 7.7% and 8.9% over 15, 20 and 30 years. Based on these results, the Rwanda government decided to scale up to build 44 villages based on the original model.

   There are many more examples of the sustainable village model in Africa being blueprinted in various countries and it is maintained that this is a positive development. Cabral et al [5] in their review of  the Millenium Village project conclude that such projects at least draw much needed attention to the chronic under-investment in rural areas where the majority of poor people live. A key challenge, they note is for the Millenium Village Project to be integrated into larger African-owned initiatives, such as that of CAADP or NEPAD. How this will happen, they note, still remains unclear.

Earth Science Events

 June 6-7, 2019

Zimbabwe Mineral Resources Conference

VISION: Pro- and preceded by geological field trips. Will be sub-divided into two morning and two afternoon sessions.
VENUE: Harare, Zimbabwe


July 11-13, 2019

World Congress on Geology and Earth Science

VISION: Providing innovative research methodologies for Earth Sciences.
VENUE: London, UK


August 4-9, 2019

70th Annual Meeting of International Society of Electrochemistry

VISION: Linking resources to sustainable development
VENUE:Durban, South Africa


October 6-9, 2019

16th SAGA Biennial Conference and Exhibition
"Current Informing the Future"

VISION: The conference, a staple of the geophysical fraternity in Africa provides a forum for engagement, idea generation and sharing
VENUE: Durban, South Africa

October 6-10, 2019

17th Africa Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
"Innovation and Sustainability in Geotechnics for Developing Africa"


VISION: Innovative and sustainable infrastructure is crucial for Africa's economic integration. As such, the vision of improved geotechnics is a positive notion directed at the development of the continent.
VENUE: Cape Town, South Africa

References and Selected Reading

1. https://www.ecosa.org/model-sustainable-village/
2. https://ecovillage.org/our-work/consultancy/pan-african-ecovillage-development/
3. Sanchez, P., Palm, C., Sachs, J., et al, "The African Millenium Villages", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, October 23, 2001 104 (43) 16775-16780; https//doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0700423104
4. South-South World, "Sustainable Development Revolution through Rwanda's Green Villages", 30th May 2018.
5. Cabral, L, J. Farringdon, E. Ludi, "The Millenium Village Project - a new approach to ending rural poverty in Africa?", Natural Resource Perspectives 101, August 2006.

*Board of the Society of African Earth Scientists: Dr Enas Ahmed (Egypt), Osmin Callis (Secretary - Guyana/Nigeria), Mathada Humphrey (South Africa), Dr Chukwunyere Kamalu (Chair - Nigeria), Ndivhuwo Cecilia Mukosi (South Africa), Damola Nadi ( Nigeria).

 

NEWSLETTER #28 - SOCIETY OF AFRICAN EARTH SCIENTISTS

Volume 7, Issue 2

April-June 2018


CONTENT
Chair's Foreword
Sustainable Soil Health in Africa
Earth Science Events
References and selected reading


Chair's Foreword*
We address the problem of sustaining healthy soils in Africa, responsible for provision of our food, as well as processing of drinking water, and absorption of carbon and other benefits which help to maintain a healthy human population. We note however, the challenges and threats Africa is facing to maintain its independence of food and seed systems, as  poor soil health  accompanied by widespread food insecurity is being used as justification to introduce high doses of expensive fertiliser into African soils and GM seeds that are put forward as an improvement over traditional seed sharing systems.


Sustainable Soil Health in Africa

In many African societies traditionally the Earth is a feminine and divine nature principle according to which life and society is organised. The living are merely seen as custodians of the Earth, which has ecological implications in terms of the responsibility to preserve the environment for future generations. Furthermore, the Earth was seen as a living being, not just lifeless matter.
   At the end of the 20th century, the Earth Sciences were transformed by a paradigm shift in the way that scientists view the Earth. James Lovelock's Gaian view of our planet, articulated the idea that the Earth, rather than being an inert lump of rock, is actually a living functioning organism [1].
   This view which sees the earth as dynamic and alive has percolated down through the earth sciences, such that today, in soil science, the soil is seen, not as inert matter, but as a living system. Whereas in the case of the living Earth, the new science of physiology of the earth (geo-physiology) was born, so in the case of the soil, we have seen the birth of the science of "soil physiology".
   This new way of viewing the soil has put a new emphasis on the question of soil health and soil quality, which is seen to have certain indicators, five of which are  identified by Rickson [2] as: soil structure, organic material content, water/air infiltration capacity, biota (the animal and plant life of the particular region) and nutrients. Karlen  earlier in 1997 had defined soil health as "..the soil's fitness to support crop growth without becoming degraded or otherwise harming the environment"[3].
   Natasha Gilbert writing in Nature has stated  what most would agree: That the key to tackling hunger in Africa is enriching its soil. "The big debate is about how we do it"[4]. A case study is recounted of Eneless Beyadi who borrows $24 from a European friend to afford the cost of two 50kg bags of chemical fertiliser. But this fertiliser ensures her crop and harvest is significantly more successful than those of her neighbours, who have not been able to afford fertiliser.
   The soil health project of the Alliance for a Green revolution in Africa (AGRA) has identified the net loss of nutrients from soils in many parts of Africa and Gilbert notes "Fertilisers make such a profound difference here because the rusty red soil, as in many parts of Africa, is deficient in organic matter and in key nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous" [5]. Over the past 30 years the net loss in these nutrients equates to $4 billion of fertiliser. A clear message from the article on what it proposes is the solution: substantial doses of fertiliser. The AGRA funded study by Martey et al notes that 90% of farmers in Ghana are small holdings of  less than 2 hectares in size, with production being mainly rain-fed. The study made its focus on the factors influencing mineral fertiliser adoption among small holder farmers in northern Ghana , and like other studies proposes the most practical solution to seeing lack of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorous is high doses of fertiliser [6,7]. The high food insecurity of the study area further convinces the study's authors that increasing the adoption of high fertiliser use among small holder farms is the only solution to enrich the regional soil, despite high costs. AGRA and its scientists and government supporters urge the local adoption of  policy to  subsidise smallholder farm purchases of both fertilisers and GM seeds (usually termed "improved seeds").

                                                                                                                                     Photo:Food and Agriculture Organisation, UN.

   To balance the view of fertiliser being the key to boost soil fertility we have the alternative view taken by the Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) at the UN, pushing for an approach which is agro-ecological and therefore takes into account the conservation of the local ecology; not simply high-yielding seed and fertiliser to promote that seed; but also the environment in which the seed thrives, the health of the soil, the level of groundwater and its freedom of pollution, vegetation, protection against soil degradation,etc. Also pushing for cheaper more organic and sustainable solutions: such as no till farming; mulching, and "fertiliser" plants that boost the soil's nitrogen content organically. According to some reports, these techniques are beginning to raise yields and improve soil fertility.  The promotion of fertiliser trees is currently taking place in at least four countries: Malawi, Niger, Kenya and Rwanda. However, critics complain that farmers are slow to adopt these methods as they require significantly more labour. This is an uneven observation by critics  in so far as the cost to purchase fertiliser or "improved" seeds is surely a much greater obstacle than difficulty of labour. Furthermore, because seeds and fertilizer are often out of range of affordability they encourage falling into debt and dependency ties (through loans) both on a personal and a national level.
   The response of  AGRA (and its agro-business directed research) to nitrogen fixing plants is to simply now fund research into GM crops that have these nitrogen fixing properties bred into them. Ken Giller, an agronomist from the Netherlands, has been given a $22 million grant by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to research a GM nitrogen-fixing legume crop[8]. This looks like  aiming to neo-colonise an African market for nitrogen fixing plants where one has yet to emerge; because companies will eventually patent such plants and farmers will have no choice but to purchase the seed for them. It is in these circumstances we see the need for an organisation such as AFSA to voice legitimate concerns over the motivation of the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation philanthropy  and its high threat to African food and seed sovereignty[9].
   It is disappointing  to observe that perhaps the whole debate has actually gone backwards in the past 26 years. Back in 1992, FAO in Rome published a report on Soil and Water Conservation in Subsaharan Africa which showed how a variety of traditional practices in soil and water conservation served to increase soil fertility and productiveness. Yields were seen to be 30% higher than those gained with conventional agriculture[10]. This means that agroecological methods have been proven, but  not applied on the ground for the past 26 years. AFSA is helping to redress this situation; holding workshops for African farmers on a pan African level [11].
 

Earth Science Events

  October 11-13, 2018

Towards Sustainable Management of Natural Resources: resources for generations yesterday, today and tommorrow

VISION: Earth sciences week organised by Regional Centre for Environmental and Mining Geological Studies
VENUE: Bukavu, DR Congo


October 24-25, 2018

ISERD, 475th International Conference on Environment and Natural Science

VISION: Scholars, scientists, engineers and students present and share their ongoing research activities with a view to enhancing research relations globally.
VENUE: Cape Town, South Africa.



October 25-29, 2018

The 12th Conference of the African Association of Remote Sensing of the Environment

VISION: A conference focused on earth observation and geospatial science in service of sustainable development goals. Conference themes include 1) Big data and data mining of geospatial data. 2) Climate change implications for sustainable development. 3) Geospatial science for early warning systems for geohazards.4) Influence of African space policy on the youth generation 5) Remote sensing for natural resources management, etc.
VENUE:Alexandria, Egypt.


November 3-5, 2018

African Food Systems and the Strategic Development Goals (SDGs)

VISION: A conference hosted by the Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa (AFSA) on the future of food systems in Africa and the launch of a continental campaign,
VENUE: Dakar, Senegal



References and selected reading

1. Lovelock, J., The Ages of Gaia: A Biography of Our Living Earth, Oxford University Press, 1988.
2. Rickson, R.J., presentation "Improving Soil Structure and Reducing Soil Degradation", Managing
    Soils for Profit & Restoration, Cranfield University, 19th January, 2016.
3. Karlen, D. L., M. Mausbach, R. Cline, J. Doren, R. Harris, G. Shuman, Soil Quality: A Concept 
    Definition and Framework for Evaluation, Soil Sci. Soc. of Am. J., Vol. 61, No. 1, p. 4-10,  1997
4. Gilbert, N., Dirt Poor: The key to tackling hunger in Africa is enriching its soil, Nature,  vol.
    483, page 525-7,29 march 2012.
5. Ibid.
6. Martey, E.,Wiredu, A.N., Etwire, P.,Fosu, M., Buah, S., Bidzakin, J., Ahiabor, B., Kusi, F.,
   Fertiliser Adoption and Use Intensity Among Smallholder Farmers in Northern Ghana,
    Sustainable Agric. Res.,Vol. 3, No.1, 2014.
7. Lu, C. and |H. Tian, Global nitrogen and phosphorous fertiliser use for agriculture and production
    in the past century:shifted hotspots and nutrient imbalance, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 9, 181-192,
    2017.
8. Gilbert, N., Op. Cit.
9. Mayet, Mariam, Dangers of the Gates Foundation: Displacing Seeds and Farmers, Grassroots International, 18th Nov. 2015.
10. Food and Agriculture Organisation, United Nations, Soil and Water Conservation in Subsaharan Africa, Rome, 1992.
11. https://afsafrica.org/african-farmers-receive-training-on-agroecology/

*Board of the Society of African Earth Scientists: Dr Enas Ahmed (Egypt), Osmin Callis (Secretary - Guyana/Nigeria), Mathada Humphrey (South Africa), Ndivhuwo Cecilia Mukosi (South Africa), Dr Chukwunyere Kamalu (Chair - Nigeria).

NEWSLETTER #27 - SOCIETY OF AFRICAN EARTH SCIENTISTS

Volume 7, Issue 1

January-March 2018


CONTENT
Chair's Foreword
Renewable Energy Battery Regulation and Recovery in off-grid PV Systems
Earth Science Events
References and selected reading



Chair's Foreword*
This issue addresses the problem of renewable energy battery life as applied to Africa where batteries are a very expensive  yet very vulnerable component of  off-grid photo-voltaic  (PV) solar electricity energy systems.

Renewable Energy Battery Regulation and Recovery in Off-grid PV Systems

Introduction
The regulation of battery charge when rechargeable batteries are used to store energy drawn from solar panels (or wind or hydro-turbines), is crucial if battery life is to be maximised and this expensive component of the electric system is to be sustained.
   It is worthy of note that there are social as well as environmental issues that impact on the effectiveness and even economic feasibility of this technology. The fear of theft, for instance,  can sometimes restrict options for users in where they feel able to locate solar panels.  Also there may be limitations on roof  space which is not shaded and therefore open to sunlight. The structure of roofing may be such that direct sunlight is only received by the panels  for part of the day. These factors do lead to the battery/battery bank not being fully charged on a regular basis, which is important to sustain battery life.
   Although the price of solar energy is rapidly falling, especially in comparison to fossil fuels, it still remains a prohibitively expensive technology, out of the reach of many of the African population in terms of affordability.   It therefore is of great interest to ascertain if system batteries that become deeply discharged, for one reason or another, can be recovered; saving the relatively unaffordable cost of replacement, as well as the prospective environmental hazard associated with battery disposal.


Basic Considerations in Battery Charging
In a photo-voltaic (PV) electrical energy system with

• a battery /battery bank which stores energy collected from the solar panels (or wind or hydro-turbines)
• a power inverter to convert DC current to AC current for household appliances
• a charge controller to regulate the charging of the battery/battery bank from the solar panels (or other source) so the battery does not become over-charged (which can release toxic gases) or discharged below 80% of its capacity,

the charge controller will cut out the inverter and stop the system working once the battery charge drops to 50%. Contrary to what might be expected, battery charge state is only inversely related to the battery voltage above approximately 21 volts, for a 24 volt battery/battery bank, as the graph below illustrates (figure 1.). At 100% charge the voltage of a 24v battery/battery bank is 25.5 volts. At 90% charge it is 25.24 volts; at 50% it is 24.20 volts; at 10% it is 23.02 volts, and so on.

Figure1. Percentage % Battery Charge Remaining for a 24 volt Battery/Battery Bank

   In a PV system the charge controller would normally prevent the batteries from discharging below  80%  of capacity. However, if the PV system is disconnected for some period, the batteries will slowly discharge in storage and if left without recharging for a considerable period, they will become very deeply discharged. The discharge is more severe if  the battery/battery bank remains  connected to equipment, such as the power inverter, or even the charge controller itself.

   From basic principles, we know that if voltage is applied to the battery system , which is greater than the battery's voltage, a current will flow through the battery (in reverse direction to when it is supplying a current) and will charge. The rate of charge or current that will flow will depend on the difference between the battery voltage and that of the energy source for recharging (e.g., solar panels).

   Common wisdom until recently was that such a battery would be beyond recovery and effectively dead. However, battery techhnology is under the spotlight and there is a view that slow charging with solar panels can recover deeply discharged batteries; which should be welcome news for solar energy system users in the developing world.

  In the following considerations we focus on the lead/acid battery, which would appear to be the most commonly used type of rechargeable battery supporting PV systems in Africa. The lead Acid battery  illustrated in figure 2, consists of positive and negative terminals both made of lead plates. As the battery charges,  the process of electrolysis delivers a layer of lead oxide to the positive terminal; whilst discharging the battery causes the lead dioxide  and lead on  the plates to be  converted to a soft lead sulphate. The reaction dilutes the acid and makes it less dense.

Figure 2. Lead/Acid Battery with positive and negative lead plate  terminals

     

Lead - Acid Battery Regulation and Recovery


Diaz and Egido (2003) in their paper on battery charge regulation [1], make technical recommendations for the charge regulation of lead/acid batteries. They note that batteries are the weakest component in the PV system since they rarely perform at full capacity and often diminish in storage capacity with time. This diminution is mainly due to failure to maintain full charging of the battery, for reasons including

• randomness of solar radiation
• personal consumption pattern of each PV user
• cost and availability
• battery working in limited range due to various factors, limiting the expected long battery life. 

Diaz and Egido discover from their tests, significant variations in  the discharge profiles of batteries depending on the make of charge controller; indicating that choice of controller is an important factor in ensuring the optimum regulation and operation of the battery.

   The authors recommend maximum depths of battery discharge which they say should not be exceeded.

   In practice, circumstances as already described do mean that these depths are often unavoidably exceeded for one reason or another. However, earlier work of  Spier and Kasinkoski (1995) goes to the trouble of testing if deep discharging really does mean the fatality of the battery [2], and not simply accepting the common wisdom, which has not been sufficiently tested. These earlier authors writing in the Journal of Power Sources, posit the crucial and exact question that needs to be answered :

"Can the battery recover from a very deep discharge at a low discharge rate, followed by a slow recharge under PV-type conditions?"[3]  The authors answer this by concluding that in general most batteries can be recovered whilst losing no more than about 10% of their charge capacity, after storage in a deeply discharged condition.

   This result means that we can avoid massive wastage of solar battery resources  provided we are able to recharge in the correct manner. Apparently, many standard battery chargers are not always able to fully recharge deeply discharged batteries, because a safety mechanism  prevents this. However, a safe and  effective method is to follow-up the use of a battery charger with the application of a slow charge via solar panels, which may take days, but will deliver battery charge back to almost full capacity.

Earth Science Events

April 17-19, 2018

The 7th Digital Earth Summit

VISION: In the decades since the coining of the concept of Digital Earth, we have seen technological advances in earth observation, Geographical Information Systems, communication networks, grid computation and other areas of globally oriented digital technology. The International Society of Digital Earth (ISDE) has worked in collaboration with Chouaib Doukkali University, the African Association of Remote Sensing in the environment  and the Moroccan Association of Remote Sensing in the environment to host a conference on Digital Earth for sustainable development that brings together scientists and other professionals from Africa and the international community to present their achievements in research, share expertise and experience.
VENUE: Faculty of Science, Chouaib Douakkali University,
El Jadida, Morocco.


July 14-15, 2018

IASTEM, 420th International Conference on Environment and Natural Science

Lagos, Nigeria.


July 21-28, 2018
27th Colloquium of African Geology and 17th Conference of the Geological Society of Africa
VISION:This is a major biennial meeting organised this year by Aveiro University and Geological Society of Africa, under the auspices of Geological Society of Africa.  The meeting invites senior and early career scientists from all over the globe to participate and  foster international cooperation.
VENUE: Aveiro University, Portugal.

July 22-23, 2018

IASTEM, 425th International Conference on Environment and Natural Science

VISION: Scholars, scientists, engineers and students present and share their ongoing research activities with a view to enhancing research relations globally.
VENUE: Port Luis, Mauritius.

August 30, 2018

IASTEM, 449th International Conference on Environment and Natural Science

VISION: Scholars, scientists, engineers and students present and share their ongoing research activities with a view to enhancing research relations globally.
VENUE: Lagos, Nigeria.

October 24-25, 2018

ISERD, 475th International Conference on Environment and Natural Science

VISION: Scholars, scientists, engineers and students present and share their ongoing research activities with a view to enhancing research relations globally.
VENUE: Cape Town, South Africa.



October 25-29, 2018

The 12th Conference of the African Association of Remote Sensing of the Environment

VISION: A conference focused on earth observation and geospatial science in service of sustainable development goals. Conference themes include 1) Big data and data mining of geospatial data. 2) Climate change implications for sustainable development. 3) Geospatial science for early warning systems for geohazards.4) Influence of African space policy on the youth generation 5) Remote sensing for natural resources management, etc.
VENUE:Alexandria, Egypt.



References and selected reading

1. Diaz, P. and Egido, M.A., Experimental Analysis of Battery Charge Regulation in Photovoltaic Systems, Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. 2003; 11:481-493 (DOI: 10.1002/pip.509).
2. Spiers, D.J, and  Rasinkoski, D, Predicting the service lifetime of lead/acid batteries in photovoltaic systems, Journal of Power Sources 53 (1995) 245-253.
3. Ibid., p. 248.

*Board of the Society of African Earth Scientists: Dr Chukwunyere Kamalu (Chair - Nigeria), Ndivhuwo Cecilia Mukosi (South Africa), Osmin Callis (Secretary - Guyana/Nigeria), Mathada Humphrey (South Africa), Dr Enas Ahmed (Egypt).